Ways by which an employee who is injured whilst at work can impose liability on his employer to pay him compensation for injuries suffered at work and One of the defenses open to an employer in the event that the employee sues him for compensation for injuries sustained at work

 There are three ways by which an employee who is injured whilst at work can impose  liability  on his  employer  to pay  him  compensation  for  injuries  suffered 

a. By breach of personal duty: The employee must be able to show  that  his  employer  has been  in  breach  of  his  personal  duty  not  to  expose  him  to  unreasonable  risk.  When  someone fails  to  do  something  that  it  is  their  duty  to  do  according  to  the  law  or  an  agreement.  Their failure  to reveal the  risks  associated with this product amounted to a  serious  breach of duty. 

b. By breach of statute: The employee must be able to show that his  employer  has  been  in breach  of  his  statutory  duty.  A  person  in  breach  of  the  statutory  duty  is  liable  to  any  criminal penalty imposed  by the statute, but may also be liable to pay damages to the person  injured by the breach if he belongs to the class for whose protection  the  statute was passed.

 c. By establishing  that (claim) as a principal: He  must  therefore  be able  to  establish  that  as  a principal  that  his  employer  was  vicariously  liable  for  his  (employee's)  negligent  act  which  caused him  injury.  Principle,  canon,  rule  imply  something  established  as  a  standard  or  test,  for  measuring, regulating, or guiding  conduct or practice. A principle is a  general and fundamental truth that may be  used in deciding  conduct or choice: to adhere  to  principle.

When  there  is  situation  whereby  an  employee  imposes  a  liability  on  his  employer  to  pay compensation  for  injuries  suffered  there  are  defenses  open  to  the  employer.  One  of  such defenses  is  called  Remoteness  of  damage. 

The  term  'remoteness  of  damages'  refers  to  the  legal  test  used  for  deciding  which  type  of  loss caused  by  the  breach  of  contract  may  be  compensated  by  an  award  of  damages.  This  relates  to the  requirement  that  the  damage  must  be  of  a  foreseeable  type.

By  Foreseeable  damage  it  means that  both  party  to  the  contract  knew  or  should  have  been  aware  of  at  the  time  when  the  contract was made. In  negligence  claims,  once the  claimant has established  that  the  defendant  owes  them  a  duty  of care  and  is  in  breach  of  that  duty  which  has  caused  damage,  in  this  context  he  must  most especially also demonstrate that the damage was not too remote. 

See  the cases of Thomas Kerewi V Bisiriyu  Odegbwsan  (1967).  The  Supreme  Court  held  that  person  cannot  be  held  liable  for negligence  unless  the  damage  is  caused  by  the  negligence or as a consequence of it. This case is hinged on the "issue of causation". A  person  who  is  negligent  will  be  liable  for  all  the  direct  and  immediate  consequences  of  the negligence. 

In  English  law,  remoteness  is  a  set  of  rules  in  both  tort  and  contract,  which  limits  the  amount  of compensatory  damages  for  a  wrong.  In  negligence,  the  test  of  causation  not  only  requires  that  the defendant  was  the  cause  in  fact,  but  also  requires  that  the  loss  or  damage  sustained  by  the  claimant was  not  too  remote.  

See  the  case  of  Ginty  V  Belmont  Building  Supplies  Ltd  (1959).  In  this  case the  worker  was  instructed  not  to  work  on  the  asbestos  roof  without  using  boards  kept  in  the  store nearby.  He  fell      through  the  opening  and  was  injured.  The  court  held  that  he  was  solely  responsible for  his misfortune  because  he  did not  listen to the  instructions of  his employer.    

In  Doughty  V Turner Manufacturing co. Ltd (1964). The defendant escaped liability  because the  court  of  appeal  held that  the  circumstances  in  which  the  damage  resulting  in the injury  of the plaintiff  was  too remote  and unrealistic  to be described as foreseeable. Once  the  damage  is  caused  by  a  wrong,  there  have  to  be  liabilities. 

 The  question  is  how  much liability  can be  fixed, and what factor determines it. The  principle  of Remoteness of Damages is relevant  to  such  cases.  An  event  constituting  a  wrong  can  constitute  of  single  consequence  or may  constitute  of  consequences  i.e.  series  of  acts/wrongs.  The  damage  may  be  proximate  or might be remote, or too remote. 

In  law,  the  damage  must  be  direct  and  the  natural  result  of  the  consequence  of  the  act  of  the defendant. Otherwise, the  plaintiff  will  not succeed. This is In jure  non remota causased proxima spectatur  (In  law  the  immediate,  not  the  remote  cause  of  any  event  that  is  to  be  considered).  The reason  for  this  is  that  the  defendant  is  presumed  to  have  intended  the  natural  consequences,  but not  the  remote  damage.  It  means  then  that  the  defendant's  act  must  be  the  Causa  Causans  or  the proximate (near)  cause.

 Novus  actus interveniens: (new  act intervening) The  act  and  the  consequences  are  to  be  connected directly  and  the  defendant  will  not  be  liable for Novus actus interveniens  and the consequences thereof. 

Scott  v.  Shepherd  (Squib case) D  threw  a  lighted  squib  into  a  crowd.  It  fell  on  X.  who  threw  it  further,  It  fell  on  Y  who  threw  it away.  It  fell  on  P,  exploded  and  blinded  one  eye.  Held,  D  was  liable  to  P.  Though  X  and  Y  had intervened,  D's  act  was  the  Causa  Causans.  The  defendant  pleaded  novus  actus  intreveniens  but the court rejected this  defence.

 In  Haynes  v.  Harwood,  the  unattended  horse  van  of  D  started  running  as  some  boys  had  thrown stones  at  the  horse.  The  policeman  who  attempted  to  stop  the  horse  was  injured.  Held  D  liable. The  contention  that  the  throwing  of  stones  was  an  intervening  cause  and  hence  D  was  not  liable was rejected by  the  court. 


                           ILLUSTRATION 

A person is going driving on a road, he hits a girl on the footpath, the girl tumbles on a  bicycle breaks  her  finger,  the  bicycle  man  loses  his  balance  and  gets  in  front  of  a  fuel  tanker,  the tanker  to  save  the  man  on  the  bicycle  steers  left  but  unfortunately  hits  the  railing  to  a  river bridge  and  falls  into  it,  the  lock  of  the  fuel  tank  breaks  and  the  oil  spills  into  the  river,  the driver with the truck drowns. 

In  the above case: The girl being hit is the direct damage and it is the direct damage  caused by the  act  of  A,  the  damage  caused  to the  cyclist  is  proximately  caused  by  the  falling  of  the  girl and is remote to the act of A, the damage caused to the truck driver  and the loss of material(fuel and  fuel  tank)  is  remote  to  the  act  of  A  and  proximate  to  the  act of  the  cyclist.  And  it  is  to  be noted that the accountability to negligence is made  on  the  assumption  that  the  person  is  aware of  the  fact  that  rash  driving  can  lead  to  fatalities.(Though  the  expected and  the  actual  results might not be the  same). 

Now,  the  starting  point  of  any  rule  of  the  remoteness  of  damage  is  the  familiar  idea  that  a line  must  be  drawn  somewhere.  It  would  be  unacceptably  harsh  for  every  tort  feasor  to  be responsible for  all  the consequences  which he  has  caused.

 Certainly,  the  question  of  where  to  draw  the  line  on  recover-ability  of  consequential  losses cannot  be answered by a mathematically  precise formula. Judges have used  their  discretion from time  to  time,  and  in  that  process, two  formulas  have  been  highlighted: 

a. The  test of  reasonable foresight

b. The  test of directness Direct damage: 


 Two tests to find out direct damage.

 a. The  test of reasonable foresight. 

 b.  The  test of directness.


 The  Test of  Reasonable  Foresight:

 If  the  consequences  of  a  wrongful  act  could  be  foreseen  by  a  reasonable  man,  then  they  are  not too  remote.  If  on  the  other  hand,  a  reasonable  man  could  not  have  foreseen  the  consequences, then  they  are  too  remote.  And,  an  individual  shall  be  liable  only  for  the  consequences  which are  not too remote  i.e. which could  be  foreseen. 

The  Test of  Directness According  to  the  test  of  directness,  a  person  is  liable  for  all  the  direct  consequences  of  his wrongful  act,  whether  he  could  foresee  them  or  not;  because  consequences  which  directly follow a  wrongful  act  are  not too remote.

 The  test of reasonable  foresight means that the  liability  of the  defendant extends only  to those consequences,  which  could  have  been  foreseen  by  a  reasonable  man.  This  theory  was  rejected in  1921,  and  the  second  theory  was  applied  in  re  Polemis  and  Furnace  Ltd  case.  In  this  case, D  chartered  P's  vessel  to  carry  a  cargo  which  included  petrol.  Some  cases  were  leaking  and there  were  vapors  of  petrol.  D's  servants  while  shifting  cargo  negligently  knocked  at  a  plank which  fell  rubbing  the  wood  and  got  ignited.  As  a  result  the  entire  vessel  caught  fire  and  was destroyed.  Held,  D  was  liable.  It  was  due  to  the  negligence  of  D's  servants  that  the  fire  had broken  out  and  hence  D  was  liable  for  all  the  consequences,  even  though  those  could  not reasonably  have  been  anticipated.  This  theory  was  rejected  in  the  Wagon  Mound  Case  1960; there  is a return to the  old reasonable  foresight test. 

The  Wagon  Mound,  an  oil-tanker  vessel,  was  chartered  by  D  and  had  been  moved  at  Sydney (Australia)  harbour.  At  a  distance  of  about  600  feet,  P  had  a  wharf,  where  repairs  of  a  ship  were going  on.  Due  to  the  negligence  of  D's  servants,  oil  spilt  from  the  wagon  Mound,  spread  over to  the  wharf  where  P  was  making  some  welding  operations.  P's  manager  stopped  his  welding work,  enquired  D whether he  could safely  continue  the welding.  

 D  assured  no  danger.  P's  manager  himself  believed  that  the  oil  was  non-  inflammatory  on  water, and  continued  welding  work.  Two  days  later  molten  metal  from  the  wagon  Mound  fell  on  cotton waste,  ignited  and  caused  a  great  damage  to  the  wharf  and  the  equipment.  The  Privy  Council  in England held that D (Wagon Mound) was not  liable.

 The Court applied the test of reasonable foresight and rejected the direct rule theory. It  overruled Re Polemis case. It said  after  the event a fool is wise. But, it is  not the  hind  sight  of  a  fool;  it  is the  foresight  of  a reasonable man  which  alone can  determine  responsibility. 

What  the  reasonable  man  ought  to  foresee,  corresponds  with  the  common  conscience  of mankind  and  hence,  the  test  of  reasonable  foresee  ability  must  be  applied.  Judged  from  this,  it was  held  not  liable.  This  decision  has  been  approved  in  a  recent  case  Hughes  v.  Lord  Advocate (1963). 


Conclusion

The  term  remoteness  of damages  refers  to  the  legal  test  used  for  deciding  which  type  of  loss caused  by  the  breach  of  contract  may  be  compensated  by  an  award  of  damages.  It  has  been distinguished  from  the  term  measure  of  damages  or  quantification which refers to the method of  assessing  in  money  the compensation  for  a  particular  consequence  or  loss  which  has  been held  to be not too remote. 

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